Litigation in Greece

1. General Trends

1.1. What is the current state of litigation in your jurisdiction, and what recent trends or developments have been observed?

In Greece, litigation is the primary form of dispute resolution, as parties are gradually embracing arbitration and mediation as alternative methods for resolving their disputes. Therefore, to address the issue of judicial case overload, Greece underwent a major reform of its judicial system, primarily focused on the abolition of the Magistrate’s Courts (as provided by law 5108/2024).  The objective of this reform was to expedite the decision-making process, enhance the effectiveness of judges – particularly by assigning cases to judges with greater expertise and training – and optimize the management of resources through the consolidation of justice administration centers. Significant amendments have also been made to the Penal Code, with the introduction of new provisions aimed at expediting the resolution of less significant and lower-value criminal cases, as well as the modernization of offenses to ensure that the articles of the Code align with the evolving needs of society and advancing technology. Finally, it is important to highlight that ongoing efforts are being made by the court Secretariats to modernize their services and extend the electronic processing of procedures and requests from the parties involved. Consequently, in the courts of major cities, the vast majority of civil filings are now submitted electronically.

1.2. What are the key legal frameworks that regulate litigation?

Litigation in Greece is governed by a comprehensive legal framework that balances national laws, constitutional principles, EU regulations, and international treaties. The primary legal instruments that shape litigation in Greece are as follows:

• The Constitution, from which all the rights of the parties involved in transactions in Greece arise, as well as the general principles that regulate the Greek legal system.

• International Treaties and Conventions ratified by the Greek Parliament, such as the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and Hague Conventions, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the International Court of Justice (ICJ), etc.

• EU Regulations and Directives, for instance, the Brussel I and II Regulations (No. 1215/2012 and No. 2201/2003), Rom EU Regulations and Directives, for instance, the Brussel I and II Regulations (No. 1215/2012 and No. 2201/2003), Rome I and II Regulations (No. 593/2008 and No. 864/2007), which govern jurisdiction, applicable law, and the recognition of judgments in cross-border disputes.

• Greek Code of Civil Procedure (GCCP), which governs civil and commercial litigation, outlining procedures for filing lawsuits, conducting trials, presenting evidence, and appealing decisions.

• Greek Civil Code (CC), which codifies the fundamental regulations governing the legal relationships between private individuals and entities, including rules on contracts, torts, property, family law, and inheritance, forming the basis for many civil disputes.

• Greek Penal Code and Penal Procedure Code (PC and PPC), which codify the fundamental regulations governing criminal prosecution, complaints, and procedure.

2. Jurisdiction and Competence

2.1. How is the court system structured in your jurisdiction?

In Greece, the judicial system is structured around two main levels of jurisdiction: (i) the First Instance Courts and (ii) the Appeal Courts. The First Instance Courts are further divided into three categories: (a) the Single-member Court of First Instance, which is assigned with handling cases where the value does not exceed EUR 250,000, as well as specific categories of cases, as outlined in the Greek Code of Civil Procedure (b) the Three (multi)-member Court of First Instance, which is responsible for adjudicating other cases and reviewing appeals against decisions of the Single-member Court of First Instance (as well as those previously heard by the Magistrates’ Courts).

The Appeal Courts hear appeals from these lower courts, and decisions rendered by the Appeal Courts can be challenged by cassation appeals to the Supreme Court of Greece, which serves as the court of last resort for such matters. Additionally, the Appeal Court is responsible for reviewing applications for the annulment of arbitral awards. Appeals from the First Instance Courts are heard by the Appeal Court, which reviews the case de novo, considering both the legal aspects and the factual merits of the dispute.

The Supreme Court of Greece is the highest appellate court and has jurisdiction to hear cassation petitions against decisions made by the Appeal Courts across the country. Typically, the Supreme Court hears these cases in panels of five judges or, in exceptional cases, in a full bench (plenary session). It is important to note that the Supreme Court’s review is limited to legal questions; it does not have the authority to alter findings of fact made by the lower courts.

2.2. Are there specialized courts for specific types of litigation?

As a general note, the division of courts in Greece is based on criminal and civil cases, without distinguishing between courts according to the subject matter of the dispute. However, in major urban centers, where the volume of cases is significant, it is common to establish separate dockets (e.g., commercial, property, family law, IP, bankruptcy and insolvency proceedings, etc.). These cases, however, are adjudicated by the same judges without any expertise in our exclusive handling of cases. Historically, the Piraeus Court of First Instance holds a specialized docket for maritime cases, given that Piraeus is the largest port in the country.

2.3. How is jurisdiction determined in cross-border litigation, especially in cases involving foreign parties or multiple jurisdictions?

As a general observation, Greek courts have jurisdiction, pursuant to the provisions of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure, over any dispute involving legal entities or individuals with their registered offices or residence in Greece, as well as any dispute arising from contractual relationships between parties where the place of performance is Greece. Moreover, the Greek legislator has ratified a number of international conventions and treaties that govern the jurisdiction of its courts (e.g., the Hague Convention). Additionally, as a member of the European Union, Greece is bound by EU regulations concerning jurisdiction and applicable law, such as Brussels I (EU Reg. 1215/2012), Rome I (EU Reg. 593/2008), and Rome II (EU Reg. 864/2007).

Consequently, the jurisdiction of Greek courts is governed by the aforementioned framework of provisions, and it is for the court before which the dispute is brought to determine whether it has the authority to issue a judgment, applying the relevant rules outlined above.

It should also be noted that Parties may designate the jurisdiction of specific courts through choice-of-court clauses in their contracts. Furthermore, Greek courts may decline jurisdiction based on the principle of forum non conveniens, where it is determined that another court would be competent for resolving the dispute.

3. Initiating Litigation

3.1. What are the primary steps required to initiate litigation in your jurisdiction?

In Greece, civil proceedings are initiated through two key steps: (i) the filing of a writ (lawsuit, recourse, or application) with the secretariat of the relevant court, and (ii) the service of the writ to the defendant(s). Upon filing the writ, the court secretariat issues a “Certificate of Filing of Writ,” which is attached to the final page of the document. The plaintiff(s) then serve the writ to the defendant(s) as a single document.

Writs in Greece are served by Court Bailiffs, and service can be arranged by any party involved in the litigation. The Court Bailiff is responsible for ensuring that the writ is served in compliance with the legal provisions governing proper service. Once the writ is served, the Bailiff issues a “Certificate of Service” to the instructing lawyer, certifying that the writ has been duly and lawfully delivered to the defendant(s).

In cases where the defendant resides abroad, service of the writ is made before the public prosecutor of the court with jurisdiction over the case. The service is again executed by a Court Bailiff, who issues the relevant Certificate of Service. The public prosecutor is then required to forward the writ to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which is responsible for sending it to the defendant(s). The process thereafter depends on the specific procedures in the receiving country. Additionally, Article 137 of the Greek Civil Procedure Code acknowledges that service of the writ initiating civil proceedings can be conducted in accordance with the service laws of the defendant’s country of residence.

Prior to the initiation of proceedings, the attorney is obliged to inform the claimant of the option of the dispute being brought to mediation.  A brief statement to this end is prepared and submitted in the file of the claim.

In practice, it is also common for the claimant to address an extrajudicial statement (to be served through a Court Bailiff) to the defendant before initiating the proceedings in an attempt to avoid litigation.

3.2. Are there any specific requirements for parties regarding pre-litigation procedures?

Before initiating legal proceedings, an attorney is required to inform the claimant about the option of resolving the dispute through mediation. To this end, the attorney must prepare a brief statement, which is then submitted to the court as part of the case file. The failure to file the required mediation information statement may result in the dismissal of the lawsuit on grounds of inadmissibility. Additionally, failure to participate in the mediation process may lead to the imposition of a fine.

In practice, it is also common for the claimant to send an extrajudicial notice (delivered through a Court Bailiff) to the defendant prior to commencing formal proceedings, and in particular cases, the service of such a notice is mandatory pre-litigation steps i.e., labor or lease disputes. This step aims to encourage a resolution outside of court and avoid litigation, where possible.

4. Timelines

4.1.  What are the typical timelines for different stages of litigation, from initiation to resolution?

Civil litigation proceedings follow a structured process that is typically divided into seven stages. The stages are as follows:

1. Initiation of Proceedings: The litigation process begins with the filing of a writ (lawsuit) before the Court’s Secretariat. This writ formally initiates the case, outlining the claimant’s legal arguments and the relief sought.

Upon the filing of the lawsuit at the Court’s secretariat, the plaintiff(s) is bound to arrange for the service of the lawsuit to the defendant(s) within a period of 30 days (for domestic residents) or 60 days (for residents of other countries, or persons of unknown residence), commencing from the date of filing of the lawsuit.

2. Mandatory Mediation Session: Prior to the court hearing, a mandatory mediation session is required under the provisions of the Greek Civil Code of Procedure (GCCP) and Law 4640/2019. The purpose of this mediation is to encourage settlement between the parties and potentially avoid a lengthy trial. If the mediation is successful, the dispute may be resolved without the need for a court hearing. 

The session takes place during the period from the filing of the lawsuit to the filing of the briefs.

3. Filing of Briefs and Evidentiary Materials: Both parties are required to submit their briefs, along with any supporting evidence.

More specifically, the parties have to submit their briefs and their evidential material within a period of 120 days (applies to domestic residents) and 180 days (applies to foreign residents or persons of unknown residence).  These deadlines commence on the day the action is filed. The parties as also entitled to file an addenda to rebut the opposing party’s claims, within from the filing of briefs.

4. Scheduling of the Hearing: Following the submission of briefs and evidence, the court schedules a hearing. At the scheduled hearing, no advocacy takes place and no cross-examination of witnesses occurs.

On average, this date of hearing is set some 12–16 months later (in commercial disputes).

As the hearing is often scheduled a considerable time after the submission of the written pleadings, the parties are permitted to submit a memorandum outlining any new facts that have arisen in the interim. This memorandum must be filed no later than 20 days before the scheduled hearing. The opposing party is then entitled to file a rebuttal to these new facts, which must be submitted no later than 15 days before the hearing.

5. Judgment Rendering: After the hearing, the court deliberates and renders a judgment. This judgment is the court’s final judgment on the case. The court is required to issue its judgment within eight months of the hearing date, as stipulated by law. However, it is unfortunate to note that this statutory deadline is not always adhered to, with significant delays often occurring, particularly in the larger cities.

6. Service of the Judgment: Once the judgment has been rendered, it is formally served by the most prudent litigant party to the other.

However, certain types of disputes, such as those related to labor law, family law, or property leasing, tend to be resolved more quickly. In these cases, the scheduled hearing typically involves the parties presenting their arguments orally, and witness testimonies are heard directly by the Court.

4.2. Are there specific time limits for filing claims, and do these vary depending on the type of dispute?

The general principle is that there is a five-year limitation period.  Article 250 of the Greek Civil Code makes an exhaustive reference to all kinds of claims that are statute-barred within five years (e.g., general civil law claims).  All other claims not mentioned in Article 250 of the Greek Civil Code are statute-barred after the lapse of 20 years. The prescription period commences on the day that the claim was born and its judicial pursuance made possible, and it ends on the last day of the fifth or the 20th of the calendar year.

An exception to the above principles may apply when special statutory limitation periods are applicable. For example, commercial disputes between entities are subject to a 5-year limitation period, as well as claims arising from the sale of goods or lease agreements.  The prescription period commences on the last day of the year within which the claim was born and its judicial pursuance made possible, and it ends on the last day of the fifth or calendar year.

It is important to note that the limitation period may be suspended under certain circumstances, such as during ongoing negotiations between the parties, the initiation of mediation proceedings, or in the event of a moratorium.

Interim measures may be ordered by the court regardless of whether the main dispute is brought before the regular courts or an arbitral tribunal.

5. Interim Measures

5.1. What interim remedies are available in your jurisdiction?

The Greek Code of Civil Procedure provides a set of provisions governing the granting of interim remedies, which either serve to preserve the subject matter of the dispute pending the court’s judgment on the merits or address situations requiring immediate resolution. These measures, while not strictly aligned with the core protective purpose of interim relief, may, in certain cases, be categorized as “quasi-interim measures” due to their nature.

It shall be noted that in cases where the application for interim measures is filed prior to the initiation of the main action, the judge may set a deadline by which the main claim must be filed. However, this deadline cannot be less than 60 days from the issuance of the relevant decision.

More specifically, in the context of safeguarding the subject matter of the dispute pending the court’s final judgment on the merits, the court may, upon the filing of a petition, issue an order for the provisional attachment of assets and bank accounts, the registration of a mortgage pre-notation, the creation of a pledge over movable property, a judicial sequestration, or even an order for the preservation of the legal and factual status of the subject matter of the dispute. Also, a European Account Preservation Order can be issued upon the filing of a petition, as provided by EY Reg. 655/2014.

5.2. Under what circumstances can a party obtain an interim injunction, and how quickly can such relief be granted?

The application for interim measures is heard by the court within a period of 2 to 4 months from its submission, and the court issues its judgment following the hearing of both parties, within 2 to 6 months commencing from the day of the hearing.

In urgent cases, the litigant parties may, through their application, request the issuance of a provisional court order within the frame outlined above, which remains in effect until a judgment is rendered on the application for interim measures. Such a request is heard before a judge within 2-6 days and the respective order is issued within 24-48 hours, commencing from the hearing of the request for the issuance of the provisional court order.

In cases of extreme urgency, this order may be issued without a prior hearing of the opposing party, pending the hearing of the initial request for the issuance of a provisional order.

In order for an application for interim measures to be granted, the following conditions must be met: (i) the court must preliminarily assess the legal and substantive validity of the claim, and (ii) there must be a significant and imminent risk to the subject matter of the dispute until a judgment is rendered on the main dispute.

6. Discovery

6.1. What are the rules governing the discovery process in your jurisdiction?

The basic rules of evidence, as set forth in Articles 335-351 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure, are as follows:

• Subject Matter of Proof: According to Article 335 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure, only facts that are contested by a party and are relevant to the outcome of the litigation constitute the subject matter of proof. However, the Court is free to take into account matters of common knowledge, established principles of experience, and facts that are widely known or practically acknowledged.

• Burden of Proof: Article 338 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure establishes the general statutory rule regarding the burden of proof. Under this rule, each party is responsible for proving the facts necessary to support its own allegations, claims, or counterclaims. The parties are entitled to present any piece of evidence, such as documents, witness testimonies, and expert reports. It is also provided that, in the event, that one party is aware that the other party possesses a document related to the subject matter of the dispute, which could assist the court in forming its judgment, that party may submit a request to the court for the production of the document. It should be noted that the court may upon its discretion order the production of additional evidential material (witness testimonies, expert reports).

• Evaluation of Evidence: Article 340 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure provides that the judges are responsible for evaluating all the evidence presented before them. The judgment must provide a detailed explanation of the reasons that led the Court to adopt its particular conclusion.

6.2. What types of evidence can be requested, and how are discovery disputes resolved?

The admissible types of evidence (as per the Greek Code of Civil Procedure) are the following:

• Confession (article 352 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure).

• Direct or tangible evidence – autopsy (articles 355–367 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure).

• Expert reports (article 368 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure).

• Witness testimony (articles 393–414 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure) and affidavits (articles 421–424 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure).

• Examination of the litigant parties (articles 415–420 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure).

• Documentary evidence.

Witness testimony, affidavits, and documentary evidence are the most common and frequently relied upon forms of evidence in civil litigation. Likewise, expert reports, testimony, and opinions are admissible and often play a significant role in the proceedings, as well as e-mails, messages, voicemails, and photographs [within the framework of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)]. The only type of evidence that is inadmissible is that which has been obtained through illegal means.

6.3. How is evidence presented and evaluated during litigation?

The parties may present the aforementioned means of evidence by submitting the evidential material together with their briefs and addendums, in accordance with the provisions of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure for the purpose of rebutting the opposing party’s claims and the rules on the conduction of the hearing (which may differ for cases regarding labor matters, lease agreements, etc.).

With regard to the evaluation of the evidence presented, Article 340 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure stipulates that it is the responsibility of the judges to assess all the evidence submitted before them. The judgment must include a detailed statement of the reasons that led the court to reach its particular conclusion. If the court determines that the evidence presented by the parties is insufficient, it may order, by way of an interlocutory decision, the submission of additional evidence.

7. Enforcement of Judgments

7.1. What types of judgments can be issued in civil litigation, and how are they enforced?

The Civil Courts in Greece can issue the following types of judgments: a “final judgment” or an “interim judgment”.  The “final judgment” is the judgment that concludes the proceedings and renders judgment, whilst the “interim judgment” or non-final judgment is the judgment through which the Court rules on matters incidental to the proceedings, such as the ordering of the appointment of an expert to provide an expert’s opinion on a certain matter.  Another type of non-final judgment is one that rules on other issues of the case without concluding the proceedings.

A “final judgment” either following the lapse of the deadline of the defeated party to file an appeal or in the case of appeal, following the issuance of the judgment of the Appeal Court, becomes an “irrevocable judgment” and produces the res judicata effect.

Further, if the judgment can no longer be overruled following a Cassation Appeal or following the issuance of a judgment by the Supreme Court of Greece, then it becomes an “unappealable judgment”.

Further, the judgments can also be characterized with respect to the nature of the relief sought.  In this respect, they are divided into:

• Decisions for affirmative relief, are issued in claims for specific performance, as well as for all kinds of monetary claims.

• Declaratory Decisions, through which the Court recognizes and “declares” the existence or non-existence of a legal relationship between the parties.

A judgment, whether domestic or foreign, can be enforced only if it is final and irrevocable. In the case where a judgment has been issued by the Greek courts, it is immediately enforceable. Enforcement of the judgment begins with the service of the executory copy to the losing party. If the losing party fails to comply with the executory copy, enforcement proceedings, such as asset seizure or auction, may be initiated.

7.2. Are there specific provisions for cross-border litigation or enforcement of foreign judgments?

With regard to foreign judgments issued by a court of an EU Member State, the provisions of the Brussels I Regulation (EC 44/2001) apply. In all other cases, and subject to any relevant multilateral or bilateral treaties and conventions, a foreign judgment may be declared enforceable by a judgment of the Single-Member Court of First Instance upon the application of the plaintiff. The conditions for such enforcement are outlined in Article 905, paragraph 2 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure, and are as follows:

• the foreign court has international jurisdiction,

• the losing party had not been deprived of the right of defense,

• no conflicting final judgment on the same matter has been issued by a Greek court,

• the judgment is enforceable (i.e., has acquired the force of a res judicata) pursuant to the law of the country of issuance and

• the judgment is not contrary to the good morals or public order of Greece.

The exequatur procedure is essential for the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments in Greece, especially when dealing with judgments from non-EU jurisdictions or those outside the scope of automatic recognition under EU regulations. This process involves obtaining a Greek court’s approval to recognize and enforce the foreign judgment, ensuring compliance with Greek legal standards.

8. Appeal

8.1. What is the appeals process, and what are the grounds for appeal in your jurisdiction?

As a general principle, all final judgments of the Court of First Instance may be contested by way of appeal before the Court of Appeal, which can only be filed once. The appeal must be lodged either within 30 days of the service of the judgment (or 60 days for those residing abroad). In case none of the parties serve the judgment to its adversary, then the deadline for filing an appeal is two years, starting from the publication of the judgment.

As for the grounds of appeal, these may relate to the erroneous application of the law by the Court of First Instance or to an improper evaluation of the evidence presented by the parties, as long as of the allegations of the parties. Consequently, the Court of Appeal examines both the substance of the dispute and any legal errors committed by the Court of First Instance, but always within the parameters established by the appellant’s grounds of appeal. Furthermore, it is important to note that, in principle, the litigant parties are not entitled to introduce new claims or evidence before the Court of Appeal.

The appeal is heard in the presence of the parties before the Court of Appeal. Also, the litigant parties are entitled to consent in advance to the court proceeding with the hearing in their absence. The submission of briefs and evidence by the parties shall be made before the Court’s Secretariat on the day of the hearing, or, if they indicate that they do not wish to attend the hearing, on the preceding day.

Moreover, the judgment of the Court of Appeal may be contested by way of cassation appeal before the Supreme Court. The cassation must be lodged either within 30 days of the service of the judgment (or 60 days for those residing abroad). Similar to appeals, if the judgment under review is not served by either of the parties the deadline to file a Cassation Appeal is two years, starting from the publication of the judgment.

The grounds for cassation are enumerated in Article 559 of the Code of Civil Procedure. It should be noted that the Supreme Court, acting as a Cour de Cassation, only examines the correct application of the legislation and legal norms to the facts of the case. 

9. Costs and Funding

9.1. How are legal costs determined, and what are the common practices regarding funding litigation?

The main costs of civil Court proceedings are the Court fees and costs, and the lawyers’ fees.  Both are regulated by statute, although in practice lawyers are free to negotiate their fees with their clients, provided the agreed fee does not fall below the statutory minimum.

Naturally, a party to litigation must take into account that it will also incur Court Bailiff fees, expert witness fees, translation fees, etc. where applicable.

The Court fees and costs that must be paid in civil proceedings are the following:

a. Stamp duties.  These are affixed on all legal writs (lawsuits, briefs, applications, etc.) upon their filing and range between EUR 2-18 per writ.

b. Proceedings fees.  The plaintiff must pay to the State a fee (“dikastiko ensimo”), the rate of which depends on the amount of the claim and ranges between 4%–8% of the amount sought, plus a fee equal to 2.4% of the State fee as stamp duty.

These fees are paid by the plaintiff in advance of the hearing but may be recovered if he is successful in his claim.  Following the issuance of the judgment, and provided that the plaintiff is successful in his claim, the plaintiff might also have to pay the “Enforcement Cost” in order to be able to obtain the executory engrossment and proceed to acts of enforcement.  This may be avoided if the losing party elects to pay the claim without the need for the plaintiff to issue an exequatur.  For the issuance of the executory engrossment, the cost ranges between 2%–3%, depending on the nature of the claim awarded by the Court (accumulated interest is also taken into account).

In the event of an appeal, the party filing the appeal is required to pay in advance a Court fee of the amount of EUR 100-150.  Moreover, in the event of a petition for cassation, the party filing the petition is required to pay in advance a Court fee of the amount of EUR 250-450.

As for lawyers’ consultation and representation fees, these are regulated by law but only as to the statutory minimum.  In practice, fees are freely negotiated between the client(s) and the lawyer, and each litigant party bears the costs of his lawyer.

As a general rule in Greek civil litigation, the defeated party is ordered by the Court to bear all fees and expenses relating to the proceedings, including the opponent’s lawyers’ fees, but only to the extent they do not exceed the statutory minimum (any fees paid by the parties to their lawyers in excess of the statutory minimum are not recoverable).  The Court also has the right to set off the expenses between the parties.  Most commonly, the amount awarded to the winning party is equal to approximately 2% of the amount in dispute.

As is most common in Greek judicial practice, each party bears its own cost of initiating and participating in litigation proceedings.

9.2. Are there alternative funding options available for parties involved in litigation?

If a litigant party cannot undertake its own costs, then it can apply for legal aid.  Law 3226/2004 on Legal Aid provides that any individual with a low income who is either an EU citizen or domiciled/residing in the EU can apply for legal aid.  Legal aid in civil cases covers the appointment of a lawyer, where needed, and the exemption from Court expenses (e.g., stamp duty, etc.). 

The assignment of a claim against a person to a third party is permitted under the provisions of the Greek Civil Code and is executed by the signing of an agreement between the parties, which is officially announced to the person or entity against whom the claim is retained.  The third party becomes the beneficiary of the claim and can resume litigation.  Correspondingly, the defendant is allowed to assign the debt to a third party by agreement, to which the claimant must consent. 

However, this is not common practice, nor is the funding of legal costs, particularly due to their relatively limited amount.

Also, a contingency fee or success fee may be agreed between the client and his lawyer, provided that it is made in writing and a copy of the agreement is filed with the Bar Association. Also, there are practitioners and law firms providing services on a pro bono basis, although on a limited and exceptional basis.

10. International Treaties

10.1. How do international treaties or regional agreements impact litigation in your jurisdiction?

Greece has ratified through the years numerous international treaties and regional agreements applicable to various aspects of the relationships that evolve within its territory, be they commercial, contractual, or every day. Furthermore, as a member of the European Union, Greece is committed to and acknowledges the regulations and directives issued by the EU, in the vast majority of cases. As a result, Greek courts are bound not only by national legislation but also by EU regulations and directives, as well as by a series of international treaties to which Greece has ratified.

Specifically, with respect to the limitation proceedings, there are numerous treaties and regional agreements ratified and therefore applicable. For example, Greece has ratified the treaties produced by the Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements, the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, and The Hague Evidence Convention. Also, numerous EU regulations are applicable as Rome I, Rome II, Brussels I, and EU regulation on insolvency proceedings.